Plastics play a vital role today in both industries and household appliances. Plastics are widely used for various applications, such as hand baggage, cool drink bottles, toys, food packages, components and containers of electronic equipment, modules of vehicles, office block segments, furniture, dress materials, etc. [ 1 ]. The annual production of petroleum-based plastics was recorded as more than 300 million tons until 2015 [ 2 ]. During the manufacturing of plastic bags, the emission of carbon and many other dangerous gases causes environmental concerns [ 3 ]. Generally, polyethylene plastic films, such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE), are being used to produce a variety of polyethylene plastic films, and the drawback of this plastic is its non-degradability. Over 1000 million tons of plastic were predisposed of as unwanted elements, and they might take several hundreds of years to decay. The percentage of plastics in municipal solid waste continues to grow rapidly. When plastic wastes are dumped in landfills, they interact with water and form hazardous chemicals, and the quality of drinking water may also be affected [ 2 ]. Hence, efforts are taken to reduce the use of synthetic plastics and to promote bioplastics.
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Biodegradable plastics are made from starch, cellulose, chitosan, and protein extracted from renewable biomass [ 4 ]. The development of most bioplastic is assumed to reduce fossil fuel usage, and plastic waste, as well as carbon dioxide emissions. The biodegradability characteristics of these plastics create a positive impact in society, and awareness of biodegradable packaging also attracts researchers and industries [ 5 ]. Decomposable plastics are widely used in a large variety of products where recycling of plastics is encouraged [ 6 ]. Generally, the polymers are produced from the petroleum yields, so the production of these plastics needs additional fossil fuels, which causes pollution. At present, bioplastic signifies approximately one percent of the almost 300 million tons of plastic formed once a year. On the other hand, due to an increased demand for erudite biopolymers for various applications and products, the market is unceasingly rising. It is estimated that the overall bioplastics fabrication volume will be around 2.44 million tons in 2022. Bioplastics may be openly taken out from natural resources like lignins, proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides (e.g., starch, chitin, and cellulose) [ 7 ].
Approximately 50% of the bioplastics used commercially are prepared from starch. The production of starch-based bioplastics is simple, and they are widely used for packaging applications [ 8 9 ]. The tensile properties of starch are suitable for the production of packing materials, and glycerol is added into the starch as a plasticizer. The required characteristics of the bioplastics are achieved by fine-tuning the quantities of the additives. For trade applications, the starch-based plastics are regularly mixed with eco-friendly polyesters.
11,12,13,14,Most green plants produce this polysaccharide as an energy store. Human diets also consist of this carbohydrate, and it is contained in enormous volumes in primary foods, including rice, cassava, maize (corn), wheat, and potatoes. Among them, the most important starch is cassava starch, which contains more than 80% starch in dry mass. Starch is a carbohydrate that contains a great amount of glucose units, combined through glycosidic links. For the residents of tropical regions, cassava starch is the third most essential nutrition source. A biodegradable polymer from cassava starch for various applications was developed with different surface treatments. The various physical, mechanical, and thermal properties were addressed [ 10 15 ]. Researchers prepared sugar starch-based bioplastic film for packaging applications [ 16 ] with various reinforcements [ 17 18 ].
Pure starch is white in color. The starch powder does not possess any specific taste or odor. Furthermore, pure starch cannot be dissolved in cold water or alcohol. It is non-toxic, biologically absorbable, and semi-permeable to carbon dioxide. The linear and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin are the two types of molecules present in starch [ 19 ]. The amylose content may vary from 20 to 25%, while the amylopectin content varies from 75 to 80% by weight, depending on the type of plant. Amylopectin is a far greater molecule than amylose. If heated, starch would become soluble in water, and the grains swell and burst. Due to this, the semi-crystalline arrangement is also lost, and the minor amylose particles begin percolating out of the granule [ 20 ], forming a network. This network compresses water and increases the mixture’s viscosity. This procedure is known as starch gelatinization, and amylose shows an imperative part through the initial stages of corn starch gelatinization [ 21 ]. While heating, the starch becomes a paste and the viscosity is also increased. High amylose starch is a smart reserve for use as an obstruction in packing materials. Due to the low price, renewability, and having decent mechanical properties, it was used to produce decomposable films to partly or else completely substitute the plastic polymers [ 22 ]. The percentage of amylose and amylopectin content in various starches is shown in Table 1 23 ].
The tensile properties of the bioplastics would rise when the amylose content was increased [ 24 ]. As rice and corn starches have a higher concentration of amylose content, the present work concentrates on this. Ghanbarzadeh et al. [ 25 ] investigated the films produced from pure starch and concluded that these films were brittle and difficult to handle. This problem was solved by adding either citric acid or carboxymethyl cellulose with varying concentrations. The addition of glycerol may also reduce this drawback [ 26 ]. Falguera et al. [ 27 ] studied the bioplastics and concluded that the microbiological steadiness, bond, interconnection, wettability, solubility, pellucidity, and mechanical properties were the most critical properties in an edible coating. Muscat et al. [ 6 ] studied the performance of low amylose and high amylose starches to form films. They determined the water vapor penetrability of the starch and starch–plasticizer films, using an amended ASTM E96-05 technique. Anti-plasticization behavior was not perceived when the starch films were plasticized by combining the glycerol and xylitol plasticizers. An increase in the concentration of plasticizers would lead to an increase in the tensile strength. Higher tensile strength is observed in films with high amylose content too.
Ghasemlo et al. [ 28 ] investigated the performance of oil-coated starch and concluded that the mechanical and water vapor permeability properties were improved for the use of packaging applications. Fakhouri et al. [ 29 ] investigated the performance of starch/gelatin films. Glycerol and sorbitol were used as plasticizers. The effect of processing techniques on the characteristics was also considered. They investigated four diverse processing methods, viz. pressing, pressing trailed by blowing, and extrusion trailed by blowing and casting. Schirmer et al. [ 30 ] varied the amylose/amylopectin ratio of different starches and studied the physicochemical and morphological characterization. Borges et al. [ 31 ] analyzed the properties of biodegradable films of different starch sources by changing the plasticizers. The operational properties and the microstructure morphology of potato starch/gelatin/glycerol edible biocomposite films were reported by Podshivalov et al. [ 32 ]. They further investigated the phase separation mechanisms and their consequence on the size of starch granules during the drying process and the frictional, thermal, mechanical, thermal, optical, and water-barrier properties. Gómez-Heincke et al. [ 33 ] manufactured bioplastics from the proteins derived from potato and rice. Glycerol with different concentrations was mixed with the proteins. They concluded that the increases in temperature would decrease the water absorption values when the rice protein-based bioplastics were plasticized with glycerol. Kulshreshtha et al. [ 34 ] developed a corn starch-based material for building construction.
2 on the physical and mechanical properties of potato starch film.Luchese et al. [ 35 ] used blueberry powder, corn starch, and glycerol to produce the bioplastic films by casting and concluded that the film could be used for food packaging or even for sensing food deterioration. Song et al. [ 36 ] prepared biodegradable films, using diverse concentrations of lemon essential oil plus surfactants into corn and wheat starch film and described the microstructure, antimicrobial, and physical properties. Zakaria et al. [ 37 ] used a solution casting technique to prepare the potato starch film, in which glycerol was the plasticizer. They studied the tensile and microstructure properties of the film by varying the mixing temperature. Zhang et al. [ 38 ] investigated the impact of the various sizes of nano-SiOon the physical and mechanical properties of potato starch film.
Though extensive studies were carried out on the starch for packaging applications [ 39 40 ], the study of hybrid starch based on corn and rice starch is not found in the literature for packaging applications. Hence, in the present work, both the corn and rice starches are combined, as they have a higher amylose concentration. This research aims to produce bioplastics from starch extracted from corn starch and rice starch. This would be very useful for developing countries where environmental problems have a significant impact on the economy. The bioplastics prepared from corn and rice starch were found to exhibit properties that are comparable to the already available commercial packaging materials. The bioplastics were also found to be soluble in water and degradable in soil by conducting respective tests, thereby making it environment-friendly. Such bioplastic formulations can be effectively used in packaging applications, due to their advantageous characteristics.
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It is crucial to find an effective, environmentally acceptable solution, such as bioplastics or biodegradable plastics, to the world’s rising plastics demand and the resulting ecological destruction. This study has focused on the environmentally friendly production of bioplastic samples derived from corn starch, rice starch, and tapioca starch, with various calcium carbonate filler concentrations as binders. Two different plasticizers, glycerol and sorbitol, were employed singly and in a rich blend. To test the differences in the physical and chemical properties (water content, absorption of moisture, water solubility, dissolution rate in alcohol, biodegradation in soil, tensile strength, elastic modulus, and FT-IR) of the produced samples, nine samples from each of the three types of bioplastics were produced using various ratios and blends of the fillers and plasticizers. The produced bioplastic samples have a multitude of features that make them appropriate for a variety of applications. The test results show that the starch-based bioplastics that have been suggested would be a better alternative material to be used in the packaging sectors.
Plastics and other items made of plastic are created from a variety of organic substances that are flexible. Most organic polymers with a high molecular weight and other materials are compounds of plastics (fillers, colors, and additives); usually, they are created synthetically. When referring to unfilled and uncolored plastics rather than compounds, the phrase “natural plastics” is occasionally used in the industry. Every year, 12 million tonnes of plastic end up in the ocean. Of these, 9.5 million tonnes reach the ocean via land, with 1.75 tonnes coming directly from the fishing and shipping industries [1]. It is estimated that there are 51 trillion microscopic fragments of plastic, comprising around 269,000 tonnes. As evidenced by the endurance of natural materials, it is anticipated that since the 1950s, some 1 billion tonnes of plastics have been dumped, some of which may endure for centuries or perhaps substantially longer [2].
Based on how they respond to heat, all plastics may be categorized into the following two basic groups: thermosetting and thermoplastic. Thermoplastics are polymers that can be heated, melted, and molded into the desired shape before cooling. The produced thermoplastic softens and remelts when heated. Polyacrylates, polyesters, polyolefin, polyamides, etc., are examples of well-known thermoplastics. In addition to other products, these polymer materials are used to make packaging, disposable utensils, carpets, lab equipment, apparel, and other items [3]. Unlike thermoplastics, thermosetting polymers are permanently stiffened by the curing of soft solid or liquid resins. Curing is brought on by heat or radiation, and it can be accelerated by adding catalysts. Considerable research has been performed on bioplastics, which are currently the subject of significant research among scientists all over the world due to their susceptibility to water exposure, lack of compatibility, and lower melting point than polymers derived from petroleum [4]. Bioplastics are made from biological or biodegradable components, such as corn starch, food scraps, or even agricultural byproducts. Bio-based plastics are simple to break down in a natural environment, as compared to petroleum-based plastic. They are made from fossil fuels and petrochemical polymers. These results are less negative environmental impacts and global sustainability. The durability of plastics, which is one of their greatest benefits, is also one of their greatest drawbacks as follows: the rate of disintegration (biodegradation) does not correspond to their intended service life, leading to environmental accumulation [5,6].
Compared to commercial plastics used to make polyethylene bags and containers, bioplastics are typically produced at a faster rate [7]. These bioplastics aid in lowering greenhouse gas emissions to reduce environmental pollution [8]. Nevertheless, bioplastics deteriorate gradually depending on the environment’s soil quality [9,10]. Starch, plasticizers, and fillers are the main components of bioplastics in general [11]. Starch-based polysaccharides are thought to be a cost-effective material since they contain a mixture of amylose and amylopectin [12,13,14]. Starch is commonly available and can be found in foods including rice, corn, wheat, potatoes, tapioca, and others; therefore, thermoplastic starch is their primary usage (TPS). Amylopectin and amylose of glucose molecules make up starch, and several types of starches have variable amounts of amylose and amylopectin. Additionally, tensile strength and elongation both increase as the amylose level rises. Plasticized starch will replace synthetic polymers as a material. Tensile strength will rise as molecular interactions and hydrogen bonding intensify. The rigid films’ flexibility will suffer if the tensile strength is too great. Due to package degradation brought on by the environment or product moisture, bioplastic solubility for food packaging applications must be minimal [15,16,17,18]. Mechanical qualities are significant for applications involving food packaging. A sample’s tensile strength varies depending on the type of polymer used, the processing environment, the additives, and the blends. Depending on how it is processed and stored, this will alter. When creating bioplastic samples, several agents, such as additives, catalysts, antioxidants, fillers, and so forth, are added to improve the qualities of the bioplastics [19,20]. According to the tensile and mechanical properties, the main purpose of the fillers is to increase the strength of the bioplastic compound. Starch content is combined to create composite bioplastics, which are formed of the following two major materials: matrix and reinforcement [21,22]. Due to their hydrophilic characteristics, glycerol and sorbitol are used as plasticizers because they have excellent mechanical qualities.
Starches that are compatible with plasticizers, like sorbitol and glycerol, which are inexpensive and abundantly available, are used in the blends of bioplastics. The recyclability of the material is another important factor, and the created bioplastic samples have better mechanical qualities that are comparable to conventional plastics [23,24]. Compared to bioplastics based on individual starch content, the mechanical qualities of composite bioplastics have higher mechanical strength [25,26]. The water solubility and mechanical qualities should be compared to the standard plastic material to replace it for applications such as food packaging [27,28,29]. The composite bioplastics have different starch contents, including rice, corn, and tapioca. The cassava plant, which is readily available, inexpensive, and has qualities like being odorless and colorless, is typically used to extract tapioca starch [30,31]. The amylose and amylopectin content for tapioca starch is 21.2% and 78.8%, respectively. The sample of cassava-based bioplastic is translucent and white in color, and it has a better level of biodegradability. The tensile strength increases with an increase in tapioca starch. The bioplastic sample made of maize starch is transparent. Composite-based bioplastic degrades much more slowly than corn-based bioplastic, and the material’s capacity to degrade is also impacted by humidity. The degradation of composite bioplastics made of cassava and corn starch and cassava-based bioplastics is best at 15% relative humidity. A cassava-based bioplastic degrades substantially more effectively than a corn-based bioplastic when the relative humidity is below 15% [32,33,34]. Understanding the structure and characteristics of the bioplastic compound is made easier by the morphology of the starch content [35,36]. The quick degradation of bioplastic materials will happen as a result of their weak integrity [37]. Above this point, the tensile strength will drop, with an increase in starch content of around 5%, producing an increase. The glycerol level of about 1.5% will be effective up to a point where the plasticizing capability starts to decline. The glycerol will have limited solubility and swell in water if it is kept at 5–10%. Furthermore, strong mechanical properties and resistance were also attained [38,39,40]. The innate nature of protein-based (β-glucans) bioplastics has increased their performance and improved their tensile strength, water vapor permeability, water retainability, and thermal stability under atmospheric conditions. These grains of protein are strongly bonded together through hydrogen bonds that exhibit the enhanced properties of the bioplastics [41,42].
High starch concentrations resulted in a loss of the tensile and mechanical characteristics of albumen/starch-based bioplastic blends. Also, it was observed that the transparency of the film reduced significantly when the starch concentration increased [43]. The bioplastic film made from the potato and rice protein compositions has shown an acceptable range of viscoelastic and water absorption properties that would be utilized in the food packaging industry. The glycerol concentration and thermo molding temperature treatment seem to have an impact on the viscoelastic characteristics of rice protein-based bioplastics. Bioplastics made from potato protein, however, did not appear to be affected [44,45]. As per the researcher, a microbial enzyme, on which use of an aqueous solution with a level exceeding 10%, is required for the bioplastic to prevent microbial growth; therefore, it appears to be the most resilient microbe as a result. Protein-based bioplastics have been studied; however, they are unable to stop formic acid from migrating to water. Gradually moving away from the WG-based matrix, this material is ideal for long-term applications; moreover, essential oil-infused bioplastics may even prevent the growth of germs. These enzymes assist in the creation of an antimicrobial environment inside the container if they are not in direct contact with them [46,47,48]. Recent research has been established on bioplastics to develop the current trend in the bioplastics market. The major contributing factors, such as starch, PLA, and PHA on bioplastic production, provide future implementing ideas onto the market. Bioplastics are favored more in the food packaging industry [49,50]. From research and studies of lateral years on plastics, it is proven that for the next ten years, the bioplastics industry is anticipated to be dominated by non-biodegradable bioplastics, such as bio-based PE, PP, and PET that can be recycled in current systems [51,52].
Whey protein bioplastics of biopolymers: natural latex and egg white albumin on combining these and fabricated by compression molding. Water is added as a plasticizer in that mixture. It is found that the addition of about 10% latex and albumin to the whey-based bioplastics would increase its toughness properties and also enhance the characteristics of whey-based materials without compromising their strength and stiffness [27]. This article contemplates that current trends in bioplastics are focused on bio-based technology production rather than conventional methods. Such resource technologies were genetically modified organism cell lines and biomass refinery methods. All these modern bio-based aspects were meant to drive sustainable industry development and regulate the ability of bioplastics to degrade at a certain rate [53,54]. Incorporating glycerol with larger-sized plasticizers, such as xylitol or sorbitol, in the bioplastic film results in the stickiness of the film, promoting separation onto double wall areas and indicating improved tensile strength, stiffness, and oxygen-regulating properties. Thermoplastic starch-blown films having high quantity of plasticizers would not be recommended due to their high water/moisture sensitivity and surface stickiness [55]. In biochemical and soil conditions, PLA breaks down quickly for about a few weeks [56]; however, because of its high price and excessive brittleness relative to typical synthetic materials, it is not extensively utilized. Plastics that have poor mechanical characteristics are typical of PLA composites made with other natural polymers. The natural polymer and the PLA matrix were not bound well together. Recently, polyethylene glycol, polyethylene, glucose, monoesters, and partial fatty acid esters have been utilized to enhance the flexibility and impact resistance of PLA. Many compounds, including citrate esters, have been tested as plasticizers. As a result, PLA polymers’ properties and possible uses have been identified and they are greatly improved [57,58]. The starch is promoting a pathway for the manufacturing of bioplastics, which could result in the creation of materials with exponentially better performance in the food packaging industries. It follows that the properties of various materials are connected to how well starch materials cling to them and how they are compounded. As thermoplastics are processed using extrusion technology, which is one of the basic techniques that has been investigated and developed to treat starch-rich products [59]. The solubility of the substance and the values of the intrinsic viscosity of the synthetic component both demonstrate the remarkable transformation of the structure of the unstabilized sample during photo-oxidation. The positive effect of the stabilizers on the durability of produced biodegradable polymer would have been interpreted by the amount of absorbance proportionate to a lower wavelength region of these compounds [60]. Biopolymers are polymers derived from renewable biological sources, such as plants, animals, and microorganisms. They offer several advantages over traditional petroleum-based polymers (plastics) and have gained increasing interest in various applications due to their eco-friendly and sustainable nature. Biodegradability, compostability, energy-efficient processing, reduced dependence on fossil fuels, non-toxic, and safety are some of the key advantages of using biopolymers. While biopolymers offer many advantages, it is important to note that their adoption is not without challenges. Issues such as cost, scalability, performance, and competition with well-established petroleum-based polymers remain considerations for widespread implementation. Nonetheless, ongoing research and technological advancements continue to address these challenges and further expand the use of biopolymers in various industries. illustrates the lifecycle of the bioplastics.
This investigation focuses on the use of renewable waste from organic agricultural sources, such as corn starch, rice starch, and tapioca starch, to make bioplastics. Using widely available, plentiful, biodegradable, and renewable natural waste as reinforcing fillers, can help reduce the risks and problems associated with conventional plastics as well as the degradation of mechanical properties.
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