The berries of Lycium barbarum L. (Goji) are widely used as a Chinese traditional herbal medicine and functional food because of their reported beneficial pharmacological effects. However, there are reports of Goji berries being contaminated by chemical residues that could pose a hazard to humans. In this study, samples of L. barbarum L. berries were collected from plantations in a genuine production area and supermarkets in Ningxia, China. The major hazardous chemicals, including pesticides (dichlorvos, omethoate, cypermethrin, fenvalerate, malathion, and deltamethrin) and metals (lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), and arsenic (As)), were quantified by gas chromatography and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. In addition, associated daily exposures and health risks were determined using deterministic and probabilistic assessments. The levels of five pesticides from the plantation samples were considerably lower than the maximum residue limits; only dichlorvos was detected in the supermarket samples, and deltamethrin was not detected in any samples. Cu, Zn, As, Pb, Ni and Cd were detected in samples from both sources. The hazard quotient values of individual hazardous chemicals and the hazard index of combined hazardous chemicals were considerably less than 1, indicating the absence of a non-carcinogenic effect of hazardous chemical exposures through Goji berry consumption. The R value of As was much less than 10 &#;6 , which shows that consumption of the Goji berries had no obvious carcinogenic risks. The potentially harmful effects of the L. barbarum L. are more likely from berries obtained from plantations than those from supermarkets, and metal exposure is more dangerous than pesticide exposure. However, on the basis of our analysis, no population would be exposed hazardous chemicals exceeding existing standards, and the factors most affecting the health risk were exposure frequency and As content.
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Lycium barbarum L. (Solanaceae), produces a fruit known as the Goji berry or wolfberry and has been used as a traditional Chinese medicine for centuries1. Goji berries are popular worldwide as a health food, and they are consumed in various forms, including soups, drinks, and in certain dishes2 because of their potential beneficial effects. Goji berries are rich in compounds with positive biological activities, including polysaccharides, carotenoids, and flavonoids3, and their consumption has been linked with health benefits, such as antioxidant4, and anticancer5 effects.
Goji berries are mostly cultivated in China. While, there is growing interest in Goji cultivation in other countries, for example, other East Asian countries (Japan6, South Korea7), American countries (the USA2, Brazil8), European countries (Italy9, Greece10, Poland11) et al. In China, the mainly cultivated areas are in northwestern provinces of China, such as Ningxia, Qinghai, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia, and Zhongning County in Ningxia is the geographical origin of the Goji berry. The fruit is typically orange-red (although there are black&#;purple varieties in Qinghai province), has a sweet taste, and matures from late June to late September. Goji berries have high sugar content and are extremely hygroscopic. In addition, they are easily damaged by worms. To eliminate pests, farmers apply pesticides during Goji growth period. Thus, Goji berries could contain pesticide residues. In addition to pesticides, Goji berries absorb metals from cultivated soil. Further, some berries are fumigated to improve their appearance, and, thus, metals also introduced by this route. Consequently, pesticides and metals are the major hazardous chemicals in Goji berries. Previously, many types of pesticides and metals have been detected in Goji berries12,13. According to Chinese Pharmacopoeia ()9, three pyrethroids and 12 organophosphates pesticides need to be detected in Chinese herbal medicine. However, three kinds of organophosphates pesticides are most frequently used in Goji berries by investigating the usage. Therefore, three pyrethroids pesticides (cypermethrin, fenvalerate, and deltamethrin) and three organophosphates pesticides (dichlorvos, omethoate, and malathion) were chosen in the current study. Also, according to Chinese Pharmacopoeia ()14, five metals (Pb, Cd, Cu As, and Hg) need to be detected in in Chinese herbal medicine. However, Hg was not detected in previous reports8,15, while Ni and Zn, which would harmful to human health in high levels, were found in our pre-experiment16. Therefore, six metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, As, Ni and Zn) were selected in the present study.
Numerous studies have focused on the biological activities of Goji berries, however, only a few studies have investigated pesticides and metals present Goji berries, especially with a focus on their associated health risks. Concerning pesticides, Li et al.12 identified 14 types of organophosphates pesticides in Goji berries using gas chromatography (GC). Huang et al.17 also used GC to simultaneously detect 50 kinds of organochlorine and pyrethroid pesticides in Goji berries. Chen et al.18 analyzed the etoxazole and pyridaben contents of Goji berries using GC method. Therefore, GC was also applied in the present study. These studies of pesticides in Goji berries did not discuss the associated health risks for consumers. While, recently, Fu et al.19 detected 8 pesticides and evaluated the associated dietary risk. Jing et al.20 analyzed 11 commonly used pesticide residues in Goji berries from Golmud area and conducted risk assessments for acute and chronic dietary exposures. Kim et al.21 monitored pesticides in Goji berries and assessed the short-term and highest long-term risks. However, the health risks in these studies were determined only through deterministic assessment. Considering the uncertainty of metal concentrations and the variability of exposure parameters, deterministic assessment may overestimate or underestimate risks22. Probabilistic assessment can solve this problem by providing probabilities and identifying priority chemicals for risk control. Therefore, both deterministic and probabilistic assessments were performed in the present work.
Several studies have reported the presence of metals in Goji berries. Sa et al.8 measured contents of macro- and microelements, such as Ni and Zn in Goji berries using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Kulaitienė et al.23 also used ICP-OES method to detect metals in Goji berries. Wojcieszek et al.13 used inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) to quantify different metals in Goji berries. Rangsipanuratn et al.24 also used ICP-MS to detect heavy metals in Chinese medicinal herbs, including Goji berries. Fu et al.25 measured elements in some medicine food homologous (MFH) plants, including Goji berries, by ICP-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Xu et al.26 used different methods to detect five toxic metals in Goji berries. The Pb and Cd contents were detected by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS), the Cu content was determined through FAAS, and the Hg and As contents were determined by atomic fluorescence spectrometry (AFS). ICP-OES combines a wide linear range, low detection limits, good sensitivity, widespread instrument availability, and reasonable cost8. Therefore, in this study, ICP-OES was used to identify and quantify the metals in Goji berries. In addition, most studies have focused on optimization methods or metal levels in different parts of Goji berries and the health risk of exposure through Goji berry consumption have been neglected. Therefore, an evaluation of the health risks posed by common metals in Goji berry is essential.
In summary, considering the simultaneous exposure to the main pollutants (pesticides and metals) in Goji berries and the uncertainty of risk assessment, this study was aimed to (1) analyze the concentrations of six pesticide residues (dichlorvos, omethoate, cypermethrin, fenvalerate, malathion, and deltamethrin) and six metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, As, Ni and Zn) in Goji berries obtained from different sources in Ningxia, China; (2) determine the daily exposure to these hazardous chemicals from Goji berries; and (3) assess the health risks for consumers using deterministic and probabilistic methods.
Have you been wondering about the health benefits of goji berries and goji juice? Some claim that the goji berry is a fountain of youth.
But does it really live up to those claims? And do dried goji berries have side effects? Here are answers to your questions.
The goji berry, also called the wolfberry, is a bright orange-red berry that comes from a shrub that's native to China. In Asia, goji berries have been eaten for generations in the hope of living longer.
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Over time, people have used goji berries to try to treat many common health problems like diabetes, high blood pressure, fever, and age-related eye problems. Goji berries, which some brand a &#;superfood,&#; are eaten raw, cooked, or dried (like raisins) and are used in herbal teas, juices, wines, and medicines.
Goji berries are rich in nutrients. Some early studies using goji berry juice found there may be some possible benefits that included:
Many berries are good for you. It's not clear whether goji berries are better than other types of berries or if goji berry supplements would have the same health benefits as the berries themselves.
Goji berries offer plenty of vitamins and minerals such as:
They&#;re also a good source of protein and antioxidants.
Goji berries could interact with some drugs. If you take warfarin (a blood thinner), you may want to avoid them. Goji berries may also interact with diabetes drugs and blood pressure drugs, so talk with your doctor first.
Otherwise, it's probably safe to eat goji berries in moderation.
Check with your doctor before taking any diet supplements.
There are many ways to get goji berries into your diet:
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